The Interaction Between Europeans and Native Americans Essay Example for Free

The Interaction Between Europeans and Native Americans Essay The colonization of America by Europeans resulted in the demand for a sea route to India, which was the source of silk and spices, products that had a high commercial value in the Old Continent. While sailing westward, Europeans intersected with the first habitants of New World, the Native Americans. Between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, Native Americans saw their populations devastated by the loss of their land and animals, from diseases and war. The first Native American group encountered by Christopher Columbus was enslaved. Europeans also brought with them diseases to which Native Americans had no immunity. The fusion of Native Americans and Europeans during the years of settlement was also marked by the differences between their concepts of religion, gender relation, land possession, and freedom. Religion and beliefs of Native Americans were based on nature. They organized religious ceremonies around hunting and farming. Spiritual power was an important concept among this group of people. For Indians, everything was merely connected by a spiritual power such as the wind, water, animals and trees. In addition, they used to elaborate religious ceremonies which helped to define the leaders of the tribe. Native Americans definitely had an extremely strong spiritual belief. Contrasting to Indians, Europeans were skeptics about this intense spiritual religion. Although settlers admired the strong beliefs of Indians upon nature, they concluded that Indians had to be converted to the true religion, the Christian. Moreover, settlers used to follow a hierarchy system with God above everyone.. For settlers, religion meant to leave the life of sin to embrace the teaching of Christ. In most of the Indian communities, the gender connections were also not similar to the Europeans. The family decided how the women’s lives would be by creating a premarital sexual relation with their husbands. Divorce was also acceptable. Nevertheless, the children always became a member of the mother’s family. Moreover, Indians men could have only one wife and they could never marry their close relatives. In contrast, under the European rules of marriage, there wasn’t a pre decided marriage like in Native American’s life. The power was mostly centered in the hands of the men who were also the property controllers. Women were not considered independent. Indians had a respectful vision of land. Families were allowed to use the land, which didn’t mean that this family would actually own the land. They were aware that land is essential to economic benefit. On the other hand, for Europeans land was not just a place to extract natural resources, but also recompense, perhaps a symbol of the ambition of the voyage overseas. The land was divided according to the hierarchy structure Freedom seemed to be naturally a part of Indian life. Native Americans weren’t interested in living their lives under a government of rules; everyone was treated the same way. They had their own concept of freedom. Perhaps Native Americans concepts of freedom were based on the right of hunting, farming and making ceremonies. Unlike Indians, settlers lived under some rules established by a government. However, Europeans’ based their freedom according to the hierarchy system, liberty came from knowing one’s social place and accomplishing the duties appropriate to one’s rank. Their concepts of freedom meant an enjoyment of different rights and privileges available to a minority. Freedom meant formal, specific privileges such as exemption from taxation, self-government, the right to trade, royal decree or purchase. In conclusion, the intersection between Native Americans and Europeans during the years of settlement was a unique moment in the history of human being remarkable by the unawareness of cultures between two groups of people from distinguished continents. Settlers left their continent in order to enhance their power by exploring new lands. Their destination wasn’t exactly where they were looking for. However, they found a New World habituated by wild people that had uncommon customs. A revolutionary moment in human’s history was getting started.

Ethics and Corruption in Cycling

Ethics and Corruption in Cycling Ethics in Sport- The Case of Cycling Introduction The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground Conclusion Bibliography Introduction As one of the world’s more demanding sports, cycling extracts as well as expects a maximum performance from its professional participants. It pits them directly against the world’s best in the sport on almost every outing, thus creating a field of competition whereby they are judged, and rated in almost every outing against the leading stars. Unlike other team sports whereby one’s performance is measured, and or gauged against those of a like skill or position, cycling does not provide this cushion or hedge. One’s performance comes under direct scrutiny each, and every outing with time sheet comparisons to indicate one’s standing, be it the mountain climbing segment, sprints, or overall balanced performance through a stage or Tour. The demands of strength, endurance, intestinal fortitude, and mental stamina that is spread in most cases over days, and in the case of the Tour de France, weeks, creates an atmosphere of pressure to perform that is unkno wn in any other type of professional sport. Dr. Alejandro Lucia (Cheung, 2003), a world recognized authority in the physiology of professional cycling, has stated that the training as well as discipline required to participate exact a high mental toll that is also a factor of the high stress of physical conditioning as well as genetics. As would be expected, each country with major participants in professional cycling has its own cycling federation, however, the Union Europà ©enne de Cyclisme, European Cycling Union, is the confederation that oversees the Union Cycliste Internationale, International Cycling Union, which is the professional organization that oversees professional cycling events globally (UEC, 2007). This organization has the responsibility for the issuance of licenses to professional cyclists, along with the enforcement of rules and regulations, which in this instance includes doping (UCI, 2007a). The professional cycling devisions that the the UCI oversees are road cycling events, track, mountain bike, cyclo- cross, BMX, Trials, indoor cycling, and para-cycling (UCI, 2007a). The International Cycling Union is a non-profit-making organization that was founded on 14 April 1900, and is headquartered in Aigle, Switzerland (UCI, 2007b). The organization’s aims represent: The regulation of professional cycling on the international level, The promotion of cycling internationally, in every country as well as at all levels, The organization of professional cycling World Championships for all cycling divisions, The encouragement as well as maintenance of friendly and professional relationships between all cycling divisions, The promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play, The representation of professional cycling along with the defence of its interests internationally, And the collaboration with the International Olympic Committee concerning cycling events held in the Olympics (UCI, 2007b). It is item 5. the promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play, along with morals that represents the focus of this examination. And in keeping with such, the International Cycling Union has adopted a ‘Code of Ethics’ that defines and specifies the conduct of action, and rules governing all professional cycling events (UCI, 2007c). It specifies that all executive, management, administrative, cyclists, and other individuals and associations in any way affiliated as well as coming under the aegis of the International Cycling Union must adhere to said ‘Code of Ethics (UCI, 2007c). It sets forth that on a daily basis, all participants must comply with the rules of the ‘Code of Ethics’ with respect to (UCI, 2007c): human dignity, principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus, or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason, the principle of nonviolence in any form as well as the exerting of any type of pressure, and or harassment by any means, specify physical, professional, mental, and sexual, the maintenance of integrity, to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis, to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests, to protect the environment, to maintain neurality in political issues, and Olympism. Within this ‘Code’ it is required that all parties uphold the principles as well as interests of professional cycling as well as refraining from any behaviour that might jeopardize the sport, and or the reputation of the UCI (UCI, 2007c). Within this framework is the important concept of ‘integrity’, which means â€Å"the firm adherance to a code of †¦ moral or artistic values †¦ (Interactive Playground, 2007). The preceding is specially inportant in the context of this examination as it focuses on the ‘ethical and moral questions’ of drug use in the sport. Integrity represents a skill that is learned over time (Interactive Playground, 2007). As a part of the UCI ‘Code of Ethics’, integrity, under Article 4, is stated as the fact that all parties associated with the UCI shall therefore refrain from the asking for, acceptance of, and or proposal, either directly or indirectly, that any payment as well as commission, along with any advantages and or services of any type that has not been agreed to or authorized by the UCI shall not be undertaken (UCI, 2007c). Furthermore, under inetgrity it also states that when any type of offers of the aforementioned variety are made, that the UCI be so informed (UCI, 2007c). Said conditions under integrity, Article 5, go on to add that parties as covered under their association with the UCI can only accept symbolic gifts that are bestowed in the spirit of freindship as a matter of local custom, and that any other types of gifts are to be forwarded to the UCI (UCI, 2007c). The ‘Code’ goes on to cover such fields as ‘Conflict of Interests’, and Confidentiality’ in laying out specific terms of conduct (UCI, 2007c). In keeping with the foregoing, the UCI has established an ‘Ethics Commission’, that has been granted authority in the following areas (UCI, 2007c): to oversee and ensure that all facets of the ‘Code’ are respected, to field and receive complaints with regard to any infringement to the ‘Code’, to provide advice as well as assistance concerning ethical matters in all phases of the ‘Code’, to provide advice on the avoidance as well as resolution of conflicts of interests, to recommend sanctions as a result of offences against the ‘Code’, to set forth measures for the application and adherence to the ‘Code’, and to put forth proposals recommending programmes to teach and advise on ethics. The foregoing represents an extremely important facet in this discussion in that the UCI has taken an active stance in the areas of ethics, and morals, as defined by integrity. The foregoing represents a critical aspect in the examination of breaches, and scandals that have befallen the sport of cycling that have made the news recently, particularly in the instance of the most recent winner of the Tour de France. The Consequences of Individual Actions As indicated in the UCI’s ‘Code of Ethics’ as well as by the actions taken by this organization as far back as the 1960s when an article representing doping was introduced into the organization’s rules, drugs have been a key consideration in ensuring that a level as well as trustworthy representation of the sport was, and is a part of its operation (UCI, 2007d). The preceding focus was further enhanced by the following subsequent rules, and regulations (UCI, 2007d: in 1966 a similar article, on doping as referred to in 1960, was added to the UCI Technical Guide, in 1967, the UCI published its first list representing substances that were prohibited, in 1967 the UCI put into motion the first sanctions taken against riders that refused to undergo testing, 1967 represented the publishing of the first Medical Control Rules, which were the forerunner to the Anti-doping Rules The above historical understanding of the stance, and active programmes of the UCI is important in the context of recent events on doping in the sport of cycling. This examination shall cover the most noteworthy of these types of events, noting that doping issues have been a part of individual athlete rule broaching since the 1960’s (UCI, 2007d). The Tour de France represents professional cycling’s most premier, and prestigious event. It’s â€Å"†¦scale and social and cultural significance demands the academic attention that it has not always received †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 1). Covering in excess of 4,000 kilometres throughout France, and a few neighbouring countries, millions of on-hand spectators as well as hundreds of millions across the globe via television, and other forms of media follow the event. First conducted in 1903, the Tour has been held as a pinnacle of sporting fairness that shows athletes at their best over three weeks of grueling competition through mountains, and flat stages that average around 150 plus kilometres per day (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 228). Waddington (1998, p. 161) advises â€Å"†¦that a good Tour takes one year off your life, and when you finish in a bad state, they reckon three years†¦ You cant describe to a normal person how tired you fee l†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . They add that â€Å"†¦fatigue starts to kick in on the Tour after ten days if youre in good shape, and after five days if youre not in your best condition physically† (Waddington, 1998, p. 161). Waddington (1998, p. 161) adds that â€Å"Then, it all just gets worse and worse, you dont sleep so much, so you dont recover as well from the days racing, so you go into your reserves, you get more knackered, so you sleep less†¦ Its simply a vicious circle†. Robert Millar, a Scottish cycling professional who rode in the Tour, goes on to state that â€Å"It takes two weeks to recover from a good Tour, three months to recover from a bad one† (Waddington, 1998, p. 161). This event is being utilized in the context of this examination as a result of the intense competition between riders to look good on the world stage in cycling’s biggest event. The preceding translates into the fact that the â€Å"†¦Tour de France cannot avoid seeing an increase in the demands on competitors with the ever-growing importance of television, whose systematic coverage of every stage has also brought in, on top of the necessary battle for the stage win, the necessary battle for permanent presence in front of the TV cameras, therefore making races ever faster† (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). They add that there is a â€Å"†¦ long-standing presence of doping in the Tour brings us back to the excessive nature of the race† (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). The first instance of doping in the Tour de France occurred in 1924 as a result of the confessions of the Pelissier brothers who admitted using â€Å"†¦cocaine for the eyes, thats chl oroform for the gums† † (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230). The next significant doping issue occurred in 1955 when Tour riders Jean Mallejac, Ferdi Kubler and Charly Gaul† admitted to taking substances (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229-230). Doping issues were subsequently repeated in † (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230): 1966 representing the first year in which â€Å"†¦-doping tests were carried out in the Tour de France †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230). In 1975 the first rider tested positive for doping, In 1977 another incident was uncovered, In 1980, there was another issue of a rider testing positive for drugs. But, the most noted example came in 1998 when the winner of the Tour, Marco Pantini tested positive in a subsequent race called the Tour of Italy in 1999 (Appleyard, 2006). In 2000, Frenchman Richard Virengue, a celebrated rider in the Tour, admitted to using drugs during a Festina trial (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 232), with the biggest scandal taking place in 2006 when major Tour riders Jan Ullrich, a winner of the Tour in 1997, and Ivan Basso where forced to withdraw from the event (Leicester, 2006). But, for the first time in the history of the Tour de France in 2006, the winner was later declared ineligible and stripped of his title after testing positively for drugs (Bagratuni, 2006). Subsequent testing after the Tour was completed found that Landis tested positive for the 17th stage to Morzine that he won in what has been termed â€Å"†¦ spectacular fashion after a long ride over 130 kilometres †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that included â€Å"†¦ three major alpine peaks† ( Bagratuni, 2006). The discovery wound up causing the cancellation of a later racing event in the Netherlands as well as Denmark, and set off an international furor over doping that had been building for years (cbc.ca, 2006a). The scandals brought back to the forefront past cycling scandals, as a result of the magnitude of the 2006 Tour winner being stripped of his crown. A lot of journalists stated that the 1998 scandals nearly killed the Tour’s integrity as well as value when an employee of the Festina team was arrested with a carload of â€Å"†¦ performance enhancing drugs †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that included one called erythropoietin (EOP), which is â€Å"†¦ a hormone that helps the blood carry more oxygen †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which thus lets riders carry on longer as well as faster (cbc.ca, 2006a). That incident lead to the arrest of six members of the Festina cycling team, out of nine utilized in the Tour, who admitted to the use of drugs that aided in their performance, along with the leader of the Credit Agricole team Christophe Moreau, who later in that same year â€Å"†¦ tested positive for anabolic steroids† (cbc.ca, 2006a). The litany continues with the following incidents as well as allegations (cbc.ca, 2006a): 2002 saw Stefano Garzelli, the â€Å"†¦ leader of the Vini Caldirola team †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (cbc.ca, 2006) tested positive for probenecid. The preceding is a diuretic that is often used to mask the presence of other drugs. 2003 saw Igor Gonzalez, a Spanish cyclist, being banned from the Tour de France after he tested positive for an anti-asthma. 2004 saw the police in France seize EPO, amphetamines as well as male hormones, and the arrest to Cofidis team cyclists. Lance Armstrong, the most celebrated Tour winner was accused of doping allegations, and later cleared. The preceding has damaged the reputation, and sporting fairness of cycling, and represents a long list of doping scandals that have also rocked other sports. The spectacular performances of the 1970s, and 80s East German swimming teams saw a large number of stellar performers later come down with negative health and side effects â€Å"†¦such as liver cancer, organ damage, psychological defects, hormonal changes and infertility †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that called into question that they might have taken performance enhancing drugs (cbc.ca, 2006b). Kornelia Ender, the winner of four gold and the silver gold medals during the 1972, and 76 Olympics revealed she had been taking drug injections since she was 13 (cbc.ca, 2006b). Her situation mirrors that of other East German swimmers Barbara Krause, four gold and silver medals, Carola Nitschke, and others (cbc.ca, 2006b). Incidents of doping scandals hit the 1983 Pam Am Games that was held in Caracas, Venezula, U.S. Track and Field, professio nal baseball and football in the United States, and a host of other sports (cbc.ca, 2007a). The pressures to perform in all manner of sports is clear, and in the case of professional cycling has been particularly damaging owing to the international nature of the sport. The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground The preceding examples as well as histories of cycling, and other scandals have left the sport in a serious state of affairs. These events, and created a situation that has put â€Å",,, cycling at a fork in the road† (Case and Sachs, 2006). The failure of Floyd Landis to pass drug tests after winning the Tour de France resulted in the disbanding of the entire team as sponsors canceled their contracts (Abt, 2006). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) opens up a broad range of considerations in the case of ethics that takes into account that it, ethics, brings with it the responsibility for others. He states that ethics also takes into account that â€Å"We also are responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another† (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). A situation that is made even more the case in cycling as a team is built to promote one rider, and when that rider or members of the team fails, the entire team suffers. The case of the collapse of Floyd Landis’ team after the 2006 Tour scandal is evidence of this point. Gibbs (2000, p. 4) stated the foregoing above, which in a team sport such as cycling makes such a bind more important. He adds that â€Å"†¦we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility† (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). And add that such represents a community whereby the actions of one affect the standings of others. As a community, cycling represents a prime example of the foregoing. Mottram (2003, p. 52) brings forth an interesting proposition that â€Å"The motivating factors for drug misuse do not necessarily lie in the hands of the athlete†. He (Mottram, 2003, p. 52) points to a number of studies whereby â€Å"†¦the majority of athletes, coaches, medical practitioners and others involved in sport do not favour the use of performance-enhancing drugs†. There is an ‘however’ he states, which represents that â€Å"†¦these results may reflect the respondents ethical and moral attitudes to the problem, but in practice the pressures of competition may compel them to take a more pragmatic approach to drug taking† (Mottram, 2003, p. 52). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) adds to the foregoing in stating that â€Å"†¦ethics are the will, conscious intentions, deliberate choices, or the perfection of an individual rational life†. Sports, and in this instance cycling, embody rules of fair play, ethics, and other value systems that the public idealizes, and seeks to believe in a world of uncertainty, corporate, and political corruption. Fans, and more importantly children, tend to view winning athletes as role models, thus when that trust is shattered it damages not just the individual, but the sport as a whole. Dauncey and Hare (2003, p. 182) describe this as â€Å"The spectators ethical analysis of the conduct of their favorite riders is arguably more complex than that of the Tour organizers (limited to the rules of the race) or that of the French state (limited to French law and Republican values towards sport) or that of cycle sports international ruling bodies such as the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI)†. Conclusion Ethics is a concept, ideal, and principle that is rooted in moral philosophy. Plato’s dialogues delves into the question â€Å"†¦of the subjectivity or objectivity of morality provides the focus for the earliest complete works of philosophy †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Graham, 2004, p. 1). Our belief, and use of moral values represents an evolution of the human spirit that is traced back to Plato, and his teacher Socrates. They held that â€Å"†¦ there is a radical difference between the world of facts, and the world of values, between physis and nomos to use the Greek words, the difference being that when it comes to matters of value, the concepts of true and false have no meaningful application† (Graham, 2004. p. 1). Thus, Graham (2004, p. 1) holds that â€Å"By implication, then, in ethics there is no scope for proof and demonstration as there is in science and mathematics; ethical argument is a matter of rhetoric, which is to say, of persuading people to believe what you believe rather than proving to them that the beliefs you hold are true†. Rist (2001. p. 1) states that there is a core concern in ethics that is â€Å"†¦widely admitted to be a crisis in contemporary Western debate about ethical foundations†. He tells us that we are members of a larger community and that what binds us together in a livable society is the belief, and practice of ethics as a matter of trust (Rist, 2001. p. 205). He (Rist, 2001. p. 119) brings up the foundational principle of â€Å"†¦the problem of the relation between fairness and justice (in what circumstances and by what criteria should people be treated equally†, and that rules are seemingly needed if fairness as well as rights â€Å"†¦ are to be enforced†. He continues that ethics refers to the good life for humans as a whole, and that morality â€Å"†¦is limited to what we are told we ought, or more probably what we ought not to do† (Rist, 2001, p. 120). Hare (1997, p. 1) tells us that ethics can also be termed as a moral philosophy whereby it represents the point that â€Å"†¦philosophers come closest to practical issues in morals and politics†. Outka and Reeder (1993, p. 29) advise that the idea representing moral philosophy is and has been central to the history of philosophy and figures prominently with regard to â€Å"†¦recent moral, legal, and political thought and action†. They bring forth the interesting proposition that â€Å"†¦there is agreement on very general principles †¦ (of morality) †¦ such as the Golden Rule, and disagreement over more specific precepts, or that there is agreement over general moral ends and disagreement over particular means or purely factual considerations†. Morality represents the concept of does and don’ts, and that the â€Å"†¦mark of a civilized society is that its members share this concept, for only because they have it do civilized people acknowledge that human conduct everywhere is properly judged by standards accessible to members of societies other than their own, whose opinions they are not entitled to ignore† (Outka and Reeder, 1993, p. 29). The preceding is central to this discussion of the ethical, and moral questions of drug use in cycling. The ‘Code of Ethics’ as defined by the International Cycling Union has nine key points, representing (UCI, 2007c): human dignity, principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason, the principle of nonviolence in any form, as well as the exerting of any type of pressure and or harassment by any meas, specify phyical, professional, mental and sexual, the maintenance of integrity, to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis, to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests, to protec the environment, to maintain neurality in political issues, and Olympism. The foregoing harkens back to Gibbs’ (2004, p. 4) statement that we are â€Å"†¦responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another†. He adds that â€Å"†¦we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility†. That sense of community represents what the International Cycling Union is, and thus the highly damaging effects of individual actions to the whole. As the overall governing body of cycling, the International Cycling Union seeks to make these principles a reality, however, it has failed to manifest these into the consciousness of some of its members, which represents a real source for concern. It, the taking of drugs, has been stated by the International Olympic Committee in the following manner (Mottram, 2003, p. 52-53): â€Å"†¦ the use of doping agents in sport is both unhealthy and contrary to the ethics of sport, †¦it is necessary to protect the physical and spiritual health of athletes, the values of fair play and of competition, the integrity and unity of sport, and the rights of those who take part in it at whatever level†. It, drug use, represents a condition that â€Å"†¦is contrary to the very principles upon which sport is based† (Mottram, 2003, p. 53). Dubin (1990) states that â€Å"Sport is considered as character building, teaching the virtues of dedication, perseverance, endurance and self-discipline†. He adds the important observations that â€Å"sport helps us to learn from defeat as much as from victory, and team sports foster a spirit of co-operation and interdependence†¦import(ing) something of moral and social values and†¦integrating us as individuals, to bring about a healthy, integrated society drug abuse would have no place in sport† (Dubin, 1990). Thus, the question, in light of the preceding examples of drug use, is why so many athletes have resorted to cheating†, and â€Å"Why are the rules that govern sport often regarded as obstacles to be overcome or circumvented rather than as regulations designed to create equality of competitive opport unity and to define the parameters of the sport?† (Dubin, 1990). The unfair advantage of the use of drugs in sport lessens the outcome, and masks the potential of those who have superior abilities that are hidden by cheaters. It reduces the concept of sport itself, which is defined as â€Å"an activity, pastime, and competition †¦ â€Å" (Allwords.com, 2007). The U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007) states â€Å"The spirit of sport means competing fairly and performing to the best of your abilitythe pursuit of excellence with honor†. The international implications of doping in sport has drawn the attention of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2005) which drafted doping in sports, whereby it stated that â€Å"†¦ sport should play an important role in the protection of health, in moral, cultural and physical education and in promoting international understanding and peace†. The preceding is a broader application of the meaning and purpose of sport than addressed in this examination, but nevertheless is an important facet in the understanding of the attention and implications of sport in our lives, as stated by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007). Such higher ideals were and are behind the International Cycling Union’s ‘Code of Ethics’, and the personal as well as individual responsibility of each and every person as well as organization affiliated or associated with it. Loland (2002, p. 143) advises that â₠¬Å"†¦fair play is commonly understood as a set of norms for rule conformity and justice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . He continues that (Loland, 2002, p. 144): Fairness, represents when â€Å"Parties voluntarily engaged in sport competitions ought to act in accordance with the shared ethos of the competitions if this ethos is just†. And that fair play provides for an equal platform of rules, regulations, methodologies and systems whereby â€Å"†¦competitors are given equal opportunity to perform by eliminating or compensating for significant inequalities that the competitors cannot influence in any significant way and for which they cannot be held responsible†. Loland (2002, p. 144) states that unless there is fair play, then the performance of athletes is not based upon talent, but some hidden advantages that corrupt the outcome and prompts inequality. The use of substances to enhance sport’s performance represents an issue that is as old as sport itself (Mottram, 2003. p. 307). Fair play is the operative concept behind the rules and regulations of the International Cycling Union, and is the ethical and moral foundation. The efforts of the ICU, as put forth by McNamee and Parry (1998) is that â€Å"†¦ the moral structure of sport in terms of an implicit social contract (and thus to offer a rationale for why we should condemn cheating and so forth) needs further careful exploration through studies of both the history of sport and the contract tradition†. Midgley (1974. p. 143) continues that â€Å"the social contract is just one sort of analogy for underlying moral structures that seem to bind societies together, as a co nceptual tool used by the prophets of the Enlightenment to derive political obligation from below rather than from above†. Fairness and justice go to the root of modern civilization as the basis for order, and cooperation. Hare (1970. p. 179) argues that it is â€Å"†¦our duty to obey the rule always keep your promises is simply part of a game (the institution of promising, in this case), and that we could just as easily decide not to play, in which case the duty would disappear†. He concludes that â€Å"For unless one accepts this principle, one is not a subscribing member of the institution which it constitutes, and therefore cannot be compelled logically to accept the institutional facts which it generates.† (Hare, 1970. p. 179). The preceding are the principles and reasons for the existence of the International Cycling Union and its binding ‘Code of Ethics’ on its members. It is the duty of these members to uphold and adhere to the principles of this ‘Code’ as it represents the foundation for public trust and belief in the fact that the outcome of competitions reflects honest and accurate performances. The ‘Play the Game Conference’ held on 10 November 2005 issued a declaration that best sums up that reasons for fairness, honest, integrity, morals and ethics in sport (Pro Cycling News, 2005). It calls for the organizing bodies within sports to: Ensure that corruption, is eliminated from sports, And that the integrity of sports management is upheld by maintaining ethical behaviour, Through a demonstration of commitments to counter corruption. Corruption in sport represents any activity that changes the outcome from what it would have been if everyone adhered to the rules. It thus then provides the public with a true recording of performances in an arena they can trust and believe in. The pressures to perform mean little if such is aided by unfair advantages that skew results, thus it is the duty of the monitoring organization to enforce the rules as strictly as possible to minimize cheating, as well as to administer strong drug testing. The community of cycling is larger than the athletes and members of the International Cycling Union. It includes every spectator that has and will ever watch the sport. In light of the recent and numerous scandals, much needs to be done to re-establish a platform of trust that the public can look ate and believe that the ills of the past, are in fact in the past. Such will restore cycling to its former prominence, and help to further bound the community of athletes and fans to fair play, e thics and morality. Bibliography Abt, S. (2006) Cycling: Shunned by sponsors, Landis’ team dies. 15 August 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2007 from http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/15/sports/bike.php Allwords.com (2007) sport. Retrieved on 18 April 2007 from http://www.allwords.com/query.php?SearchType=3Keyword=sportgoquery=Find+it!Language=ENG Appleyard, B. (2006) Drugs and Debauchery. 3 July 2006. Vol. 135. New Statesman Bagratuni, J. (2006) Tour winner Floyd Landis tests positive in latest cycling shock. 27 July 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2006 from

Analysis of Construct Traits in Personality Theory

Analysis of Construct Traits in Personality Theory Word Count: 1521 Q: It is said that traits are important constructs in personality theory. Support or refute this statement. 1. INTRODUCTION If you were every to ask a person to describe him or her self, he or she would probably make use of adjectives such as ‘motivated’, ‘fun-loving’, or maybe ‘lazy’ and ‘disorganised’. These people would, in essence, be describing themselves by identifying aspects of what makes them who they are, factors or traits. Kassin (2003) identifies individuals’ emotions, thoughts and behaviours as making up his or her personality. These can vary considerably from one person to the next. Therefore, in order to make the subject of personality more scientific, researchers such as Allport, Eysenck and Cattell, through a process of factor analysis, identified factors or aspects of personality, that are considerably stable across time. Personality traits. These researchers have not yet reached an absolute consensus on the precise number of traits, which may be used to accurately describe personality. Eysenck, for example identified the traits neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism as sufficient in describing most aspects of personality. Cattell, however, identified 16 traits necessary in accounting for aspects of personality. These disparities arise out of differences in factor-analytic method used and the range of items analysed (Carr, 2004). The most dominant trait theory of recent years is the Five-Factor Model of Personality (MacCrae Costa, 1999); a richer exploration of this will follow. The following will consider the value of the construct traits in personality theory, by providing an overview of the literature on the construct traits, related theories and current research, concluding with a discussion on the findings. 2. DEFINITION In considering the importance of the construct traits in personality theory, the author will look closer at the definition of personality and that of the construct traits. 2.1. A Definition of Personality It is said that there are as many definitions of personality as there are personality theorist. Pitts (1991: 609) highlights Gordon Allport’s definition of personality, which identifies it as, ‘the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought’, as being widely accepted by most theorists. Kaplan and Sadock (1998: 775) define personality as, ‘a person’s characteristic totality of emotional and behavioural traits apparent in ordinary life, a totality that is usually stable and predictable’. From these two comprehensive definitions, personality could therefore be seen as being both distinctive and characteristic, and as describing a style of interacting in everyday life. Since each person is complexly unique, it is not surprising that the task of describing, and even more so, measuring personality is also highly complex. On returning to the question, and considering the above definition of personality, it would appear that for the construct traits to play a significant role in personality theory they need to be able to accurately describe an individual’s general disposition, and identify these as being stable across the life-span. 2.2. A Definition of Traits Traits are said to be those things that make us who we are. More specifically, ‘traits are relatively enduring personal characteristics, which, along with situational variables, influence behaviour, cognition and affect’ (Carr, 2004: 181). In considering the above definition, the following terms are highlighted: relatively enduring and situational. The author highlights these terms specifically, as they impact on the importance of traits on personality theory, in that traits, according to this definition, are not necessarily stable across the life span and are situationally influenced. For example, the trait ‘honest’ is very often used in describing an individual, yet this particular trait is often very dependent on a given situation. Despite these possible limitations of trait theory, the author considers the clear approach traits provide in understanding and describing personality and personal interactions, as well as a tool for comparing individuals. 3. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS Factor-analytic approaches and trait theories have arisen in recent years as a welcomed alternative to abstract theorising, in identifying aspects of personality that influences an individual respond in varying situation (Pitts, 1991). Raymond Cattell, using a set of observable, surface personality traits, identified a small group of 16 primary traits, as being central to personality. While, Hans Jurgen Eysenck proposed a 3-trait model. More recently, the Five-Factor Model (MacCrae Costa, 1999) has emerged as a front-runner of trait theories, as it provides a middle road between the extreme positions of Cattell and Eysenck (Carr, 2004). The Author will now consider these approaches to trait theory in greater depth. 3.1. Raymond Cattell In his aim to improve the predictive techniques of personality theory, in estimating a persons behaviour in a given situation, Raymond Cattell began by identifying names, ‘used to describe traits or characteristics of personality’ (Pitt, 1991: 623). From a list of 18 000 trait names, Cattell reduced this to 160. Then, through a process of factor analysis, he further reduced this number to 16 factors. Cattell described these 16 factors on a continuum, in a view that each person possess, to some degree, every trait. Everybody has some degree of every trait. These traits in: Abstractedness, Apprehension, Dominance, Emotional Stability, Liveliness, Openness to Change, Perfectionism, Privateness, Reasoning, Rule Consciousness, Self-Reliance, Sensitivity, Social Boldness, Tension, Vigilance and Warmth. Cattell considered these 16 factors as ‘source traits’, which form the basis of personality (Pitt, 1991, 623). In 1949 Cattell published these findings in an assess ment tool, the 16PF. According to Fehriinger(2004: Â ¶16), despite Cattell’s 16-factor theory having made great contributions to the development of personality theory, his theory has received vast criticism. The most prominent criticism being that despite numerous attempts to replicate the 16 Personality Factor Model, an entire replication has never been achieved. Yet, despite criticism, Fehriinger (2004: Â ¶16) identifies the contribution of Cattell’s theory in that, ‘investigation into to the validity of Cattells model researchers did discover the Big Five Factors, which have been monumental in understanding personality, as we know it today’. 3.2. Hans Jurgen Eysenck According to Eysenck, personality can be represented on three dimensions, which are uncorrelated with each other; he labelled them extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism (Pitt, 1991). Eysenck suggested that each person exhibits set responses to external and internal stimuli and that these will vary in accordance with the intensity of the stimuli, the situation and state of mind (Pitt, 1991).These set responses then develop into predictable trends, for example, a person may feel intimidated by large crowds, and as a result, limit his or her contact with specific situations. When this avoidance becomes a normal defence to coping with crowds, it becomes a habit. This behaviour may also then extend to other situations, such as social functions or days out in the city. When these responses are combined, they form traits. Jang (1998: Â ¶27) identifies the following contributions of Eysenck’s approach to the development of personality theory. By combing descriptive and casual aspects of personality, Eysenck’s model is considered more credible than other descriptive models. It is both comprehensive and descriptive, a critical aspect for comparison with other trait theories. The experimental approach adopted by Eysenck in the study of personality, makes this model more evidence based. Making this model more likely to generate more specific predictions because knowledge about the functioning of the specified physiological structures is available. Despite these identified contributions, Eysenck’s theory has received criticism in that it has been found to concentrate too extensively on extraversion, and has not made any expansion. A further criticism is that the unitary nature of extraversion, a premise of his theory, has been questioned. 3.3. Five-Factor Model The Five-Factor Model has drawn on the insights of Cattell, Eysenck and others, and includes the following dimensions: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience and Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (Carr, 2004). According to Srivastava (2006), the five-factor model has made significant contributions to the development of personality theory, in that it established a common taxonomy, doing away with a previously disorganised field. Furthermore, the five-factor model is distinguished from other theories is that it is based on language, rather than on ideas from an individual psychologist. Further support is found for the five-factor model, in that meta-analysis has confirmed the predictive value of this model across a range of behaviors. Saulsman and Page (2004, as cited in Srivastava, 2006) examined the relationship between the five-factor model and each of the 10 personality disorder categories in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). These researchers found that across 15 independent samples, each disorder displayed a unique and predictable five-factor profile (Srivastava, 2006). 4. DISCUSSION From the afore gone exploration on personality theory and traits, the author is able to identify both strengths and weaknesses of the construct traits. Since trait theory is largely based on statistical data, it removes any bias influence and remains objective, unlike other personality theories, which are based on subjective personal experiences. Furthermore, it is a clear and easy to apply approach for use in understanding people. However, the criticisms remain that it is a poor predictor of future behaviour and fails to address developmental issues. Despite these, the author is able to identify the importance of the construct trait in personality theory. 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY Carr, A. 2004. Positive Psychology: The science of happiness and human strengths. Hove: Brunner-Routledge. Fehriinger, H.M. 2004. Contributions and Limitations of Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Model. Retrieved on the March 2nd, 2007, from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/fehringer.html. Jang, K. 1998. Eysenck’s PEN Model: Its contributions to personality psychology. Retrieved on March 2nd, from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/jang.html Kaplan, H. I., Sadock, B. J. 1998. Synopsis of Psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/ clinical psychiatry. (8th ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams Willkins. Kassin, S. 2003. Psychology. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. McCrae, R., Costa, P. 1999. A five factor theory of personality. In L. Pervin and O. John (Eds.). Handbook of Personality (2nd ed.). pp. 139-153. NY: Guilford. Pitts, M. 1991. Personality. In J. Radford and E. Govier (Eds.). A Textbook of Psychology (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Srivastava, S. (2006). Measuring the Big Five Personality Factors. Retrieved March 2nd, 2007 from http://www.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/bigfive.html.

Julius Caesar: The Use Of Suspense :: essays research papers

Julius Caesar: The Use of Suspense Suspense can be defined as the uncertainties the reader feels about what will happen next in a story, or in this case, a play. William Shakespeare incorporated in Julius Caesar three very suspenseful events on which the whole play depends. The first suspenseful event of this play occurs when the conspirators join and discuss their reasons for assassination. Cassius feels that he is equal to Caesar, if not even better that him. Shakespeare builds suspense by using this statement made by Cassius: "I was born free as Caesar†¦/we both have fed as well, and we can both / endure the winter's cold as well as he." Then cassius tries to persuade Brutes to join in on the conspiracy by telling him that it would be honorable to assassinate Caesar. Cassius tells Brutes that the fate of Rome is in trouble with Caesar in power, which helps build suspense early in the play. To convince Brutes conclusively, cassius forged letters and threw them into Brutus's window where he was sure to find them. Shakespeare wrote this statement: "we will awake him and be sure of him. This is a very powerful statement that builds suspense because the reader most likely feels that Brutes will join in and want to assassinate Caesar, yet the reader is uncertain as to whether or not the plan will work. These events are very suspenseful as they lead up to the assassination of Caesar. The next series of suspenseful events that foreshadow Caesar's assassination happen on a very unusual night. One night before Caesar's death there were many strange occurrences the foreshadows darkness in the future. A lioness gave birth in the streets, the dead rose from their graves, fiery worriers fought in the clouds so fiercely that blood drizzled upon the capitol, horses neighed, dying men groaned, and ghosts shrieked and squealed along the streets; all events of this strange night that Shakespeare makes so suspenseful. Also on this unusual nigh, Calpurnia had a very frightening dream that was very suspenseful. The dream was of Caesar's statue emitting blood and many Romans were bathing in it. When the reader reads this he is "on the edge of his seat" finding that he cannot wait to find out what this dream foreshadows. Calpurnia was so frightened by these strange occurrences that she begged Caesar not to leave the house. Shakespeare created suspense by having Caesar speak these words: "and these does she apply for warnings and portents / and evils imminent, and on her knee / hath begged that I will stay at home today.

Alcohol, Violence and Crime in America :: essays research papers

Alcohol is a dominant tool that controls the human’s body when it takes over its major systems. In addition, alcohol has a huge impact on people’s behaviors so that their behaviors go out of their control and could lead to things rather more serious. As a consequence of the impact of alcohol, crime rate increases dramatically under the influence of alcohol. On reason that supports this conclusion is that people who are addicted to alcohol but can’t afford buying would act aggressively to get access to alcohol by unmannered behaviors that some times could lead to serious crimes. In general, religions constitute the way of life humans should live no matter what kind of religion is that, and since the use of alcohol is either completely prohibited or not recommended, alcohol should be eliminated from any society to comply with god’s law’s just as people respect their government’s laws. However, the elimination of alcohol from a society at once is almost impossible and could result in severe incidents that could go beyond the control of the authorities. The best way to keep people away from alcohol is to make it hard enough for people to get alcohol; make them suffer to get the alcohol they need. Some of the ways a government could limit the use of alcohol is to increase its price dramatically by adding additional taxes and fees on those who sell alcohol so that its price will increase and wont be affordable for most of the people. The income of this increment should be spent on national awareness through media which would spread out the word about alcohol to people and warn them about the use of this evil product. Another restriction would be increasing the legal age of alcohol buyers from 21 to a higher age at which people would be responsible and think twice about the consumption of alcohol; a reasonable age would be around 25 I believe. Increasing the requirements of issuing alcohol licenses would limit the number of stores that sell alcohol so that people will need a bit more of time to get alcohol from a far place. In addition , limiting the quantity of alcohol sold to one individual would make him waste lots of time each time he wants to buy alcohol. Prohibition is not always the key of eliminating something from a society, but education is rather a better idea.

Cultural Difference in Malaysia

What are cultural differences between Malaysia and other countries? In general culture can define as a way of life and process of development of the personality, spirit, mind, and the human effort in a community or cluster. Culture can be understood as the creation of human community in various forms, whether tangible or intangible. Culture it’s very important because it show the difference between societies to another society. The cultural features are obtained through a learning process, practices of sharing and cannot be separated from language. We cannot be denied that the Malaysian culture is very different compare to other countries.Malaysia is a multiracial country living in harmony compare to other countries. Among the three main races in Malaysia are Malays, Chinese and Indian. In addition, Malaysia is a homeland to approximately for 80 ethnic groups, especially in East Malaysia including Baba and Nyonya, Kadazan and Iban. The total of Malaysia’s population is 28. 3 million of which 91. 8 % are national citizens while 8. 2 % are non-citizen. Furthermore, indigenous people were 67. 4 %, of which 56. 4% are Malays ethnic and 11% of the other natives. Approximately, the total of Chinese ethnic in Malaysia’s population is 24. %, 7. 3% are Indian with a total of 1. 86 million people, while other race is 0. 7 %. Almost 85 % of Indians in Malaysia are Tamil community. In terms of religion, Islam is the official religion of the Government of Malaysia as subject under the Constitution and the most widely professed religion with the proportion of 61. 3 %. As multi-racial country, other religions are practiced are Buddhism, Christian and Hinduism. In terms of language, Bahasa Malaysia is the official language of the country. However, other races are free to use their mother tongue like Chinese and Tamil.English an international language which play role as a second language in Malaysia and widely used in the fields of education, trade and indu stry. Malaysia national population practices are vary according to their own religion. According to the practice of Muslim believers is to pray five times a day, fasting during the month of Ramadan and eat kosher food. Muslim believers not allowed to drink alcohol, eat pork, do not eat the flesh of slaughtered animals, stealing and committing sins. Buddhist faith practice is to remove their shoes before entering the temple and prostrate statue of Buddha.They are not allowed to kill all living beings, stealing, lying and drinking alcohol. Hindu people required to wash their feet before entering the temple, fasting, tying a banana tree during religious ceremony and wearing black mark (pottu) in the middle of forehead for unmarried women, while for married women must wear red mark called as kum kum. Hindu believer do not allowed to drink alcohol, stealing , lying, give respect for parents and do not allowed to eat beef because according to their religion cows considered as gods. In add ition, each religious wedding ceremony is different.In Malay wedding ceremony, marriage contract and enthronement is very important practice that must be done because it’s a part of wedding. For Buddhist, both bride and groom usually get the blessing from the divine. They also practiced tea drinking custom in wedding ceremony that aims to strengthen family relationship. In Hindu wedding ceremony, the primary witness of marriage is the sacred fire (agni). Both bride and groom need to turn around the sacred fire in circular motion for seven times. Malaysia culture is based on Malay culture as the original people of this region.Malay culture based on Sharia law and Islamic principles. Malay cultural give more important to values and preferred politeness, simplicity and harmony among family members, neighbours and society. Example; in general handshakes suffice for both men and women, although some Muslim ladies may acknowledge an introduction to a gentleman with a nod of her hea d and smile. The traditional greeting of â€Å"salam† resembles a handshake with both hands but without the grasp. The man offers both hands, lightly touches the visitor's outstretched hands, and then brings his hands to his chest to mean, â€Å"I greet you from my heart†.The visitor should reciprocate the â€Å"salam†. Furthermore, in Malaysia culture, the right hand is always used when giving and receiving objects like gift or money. Pointing is normally done using the thumb as using the right forefinger is considered rude. Here is some general gift giving etiquette. In Malay culture, if invited someone home, don’t ever give pig and dog toy to children and don’t give any products that made from pig skin. White and yellow wrapping should be avoided because white symbolizes death and mourning while yellow symbolizes colour of royalty.In Chinese culture, if going to visit relative home, bring a small gift of cake or fruits for children. Giving flowe r should be avoided because flower do not make good gift and usually used at funerals. Besides that, the gift should wrap with cheerful colour like red, pink or yellow except white, blue, or black because symbolizes mourning colours in Chinese culture. In Indian culture, the gift should be given with the right hand and not wrap the gift with white and black colour. In generally, the gift should not open when received to avoid people think you are greedy.The way names are used also varies between ethnicities. The Chinese people traditionally have 3 names. The surname is usually first name and two personal names. Example: Wong Jae Suk. Malay people do not have surnames. Men use term â€Å"bin†, so Kamarul bin Mohamad is Kamarul the son of Mohamad. Instead women add their father’s name to their own name with the term â€Å"binti†. Indian people doesn’t use surname. Men use s/o to refer themselves as the son of their father. Example: Ajay s/o Abishek. Culture and communication depends on each other and have a reciprocal relationship.According to Hall, â€Å"culture is communication, communication is culture†. This indicates that communication is two-way. Different culture held different values. The way we communicate depens on our culture, rules and norms. For example, American usually treats and exchanged with unknown person. Meanwhile, The Malaysia does not prefer to treats or exchanged with stranger. This showed that Malaysia cultural and American cultural are totally different. Malaysia practices courteous communication. For Malay society, interact courteously very important and showed our values of norms.For example, using proper words when talk to someone older than us like Sir or Madam. Besides that, culture is also shown through verbal and non-verbal communication. Speak rude and negative words are prohibited. Malaysian traditional cultural games are batu seremban, wau, mah-jong and kabadi. Batu Seremban and Wau is Malay traditional games, Mahjong is Chinese traditional game, while Kabadi is Indian Traditional game. Batu Seremban also known as a Selambut. This game often played in leisure time by girls, either individually or in groups. It’s usually using glass marbels or small stones.Wau is known as kite and normally played by rural people. Wau created in various design and has its own name like wau in shape of brid, stingray, peacock and many more in various colour. However, Mahjong played by four individual and it involves strategy, tactics, skill and calculation. In Asia, mah-jong is also popular as gambling. In kabadi, each team consists of five players on the reserve bench and this game played for 20 minutes. A team will be sent forward to the opponent’s team, which aims to touch and push one of the players before turning back to his team.The players who have been touched by the opposing team will be out and left the field. From aspect of the traditional dance, the various custom s and culture can be learned from various ethnic groups in Malaysia. Dance can be defined as a movement of the body, legs and arms to the beat of the music. The traditional dance has own purpose and tribes. Examples of traditional dance in Malaysia are gamelan, zapin, kathak, dragon dance, kathak, bharathanatyam and many more. Zapin dance is famous dance in the state of Johor and usually performed in both formal and informal events like wedding or opening ceremony.Kathak dance is one of the Indian classical dances which are originated from Kerala. Kathak means â€Å"art of the storytelling†. While, bharathanatyam it’s also Indian classical dance based on Indian epics in motion of dramatic and passionate. Amorous dragon dance is a traditional cultural dance in China. Lion dance and dragon dance often played on Chinese New Year. As a conclusion, this discussion showed dramatically that Malaysia’s cultural very different compare to other countries. It’s more follow to the traditional, principle of the religion and give more important to norms, values and rules. I am very proud to be a Malaysian.

A History of Oppression: the Mistreatment of Australian Aboriginals Essay

Cases of oppression are very much present within our world’s history, and even in most societies today. Being rich in history, Australia is a large example of oppression in our world. Not only can we find koala bears and kangaroos in the continent of Australia, but also the world’s oldest existing culture of aboriginal people (Aboriginal Australia – EmbraceAustralia. com). For nearly 50,000 years, Australia has served as home to these ancient indigenous people (Aboriginal Australia – EmbraceAustralia. com). Australia’s natives have been victims to oppression in many ways and for various reasons for nearly 200 years. They’re land had been taken over by European settlers, and later on they faced more oppression when attempts to assimilate Indigenous people into white society were made. For over a century, Australia’s aborigines have been faced with many racist prejudices and several severe cases of oppression. Issues amongst the indigenous people began in the late 1700’s, shortly after the arrival of European settlers. These new arrivals brought many changes to the native’s daily lives (Aboriginal Australia – EmbraceAustralia. com). The Aboriginals had to deal with intruders of whom they had no prior knowledge of, and the vastly different societies and cultures of these two groups of people. As European colonization began to settle down, Australia’s aboriginals were seen as lower class and savage beings by the â€Å"superior† Europeans (Aboriginals Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). By the mid 1800’s, the Australian Government began to fear for the future of children Aborigines and issued the â€Å"Forced Assimilation Policy† in 1869 (Aboriginal Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). It was not until the 1970’s that the Policy of Assimilation ended (Aboriginal Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). Although aboriginal rights have greatly evolved into the present, Australia’s natives still battle against many prejudices and acts of racism even in today’s society. These indigenous people are often labeled by others to be â€Å"wide-nosed and dark-skinned† and live their ancient tribal lifestyles filled with crime, violence and drinking. In addition, numerous people still believe in false Aboriginal stereotypes. For example, aboriginals are problematic, un-educated people who follow no religion, suffer from poor iets and are given too much welfare, all of which are not necessarily true (Stereotypes about Aboriginal Australians – Creativespirits. info). This issue is a very important part of Australian history. As we look deeper into the breakdown of Aboriginal mistreatment, many contributing factors can be found. The root of this issue can be traced back to the white settlement. With the arrival of the Europeans, Aboriginals were immediately faced with many problems. The Europeans brought along many new diseases and illnesses to which the Aboriginals had no immunity. Epidemics created by the smallpox and even the common cold instantly killed nearly half of the Aboriginal population, ultimately, creating a barrier between the indigenous people and the Europeans (History of Australia – EmbraceAustralia. com). This immediately put the Aborigines in an unfortunate position where they were now much weaker, and therefore deemed inferior to the settlers. Naturally, white settlers began asking the Indigenous people for their labour in exchange for goods, and claiming Aboriginal land for â€Å"economic purposes† (The Social, Cultural and Historical Context of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians). The Aboriginal population, now considerably much smaller, had difficulty when proving ownership and power over their homeland. European settlers were now stronger and could claim territories easily. This contributed not only to the expansion of the European settlers and to the growth of their power, but also to the issue of oppression in Australia. Every day, people around the world of all races, genders, ages and cultures are faced with the degradation and suffering of racism and oppression. Australia’s Aboriginals and descendants are most certainly no stranger to these horrifying issues. During the Assimilation Policy, more than 100,000 indigenous children were separated from their Aboriginal families and homes (Aboriginal Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). Also, it is estimated that as a result of the white settlement more than 600,000 Aboriginal people had died from the spread of disease, malnutrition and poor living conditions (Racism in Australia, John Pilger). Other than obvious racial discrimination towards Australia’s natives, there are other reasons why these people were oppressed. In order for the European colonies in Australia to gain power and grow their economy, they needed land and labour-good exchanges. The European obtained these through the oppression of Indigenous people (The Social, Cultural and Historical Context of Aboriginal and torres Strait Islander Australians). The differences between the style of living of the Whites and the Aboriginals are huge. The Europeans often thought of the Indigenous people as savages and wished to eliminate their traditional and savage ways. In order to do so, they Australian Government issued the Forced Assimilation Policy in 1869. This policy ensured that Aboriginal children were systematically removed from their families, and placed with white families. The idea of this act being that the young children would learn and grow up to be modern, white Australians. The Government believed that the integration of Aboriginals into the ‘superior’ western lifestyle of the white people would be possible (Aboriginal Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). Many strongly believed in this policy for the â€Å"protection of future generations†, not knowing that they would end up with the ‘stolen generations’ of all the assimilated indigenous children (Armitage). Prejudices, Government Policies and non-existent legal rights are just a few of the methods of oppression the Aborigines have faced. The very first method of oppression against the Aboriginals was the removal of their ownership of land and properties, when the white settlement first began. This lead up to the abuse of aboriginal labour and poor working conditions. The effort to ‘protect’ and ‘integrate’ natives into white society with the Assimilation Policy during the mid 1800’s is possibly one of the most severe methods of oppression used in this issue. Even throughout the First World War, Aboriginals were banned from joining the army to fight for their rightful homeland . The Australian Government did not have many Aboriginal Rights until the 60’s and 70’s. Before 1962, Indigenous natives did not have the right to vote and four years later, in 1966, poor working conditions that applied solemnly to the aborigines were finally protested and acknowledged. It was not until 1967 that the Commonwealth Referendum obtained permission to create new laws and rights regarding indigenous people. Some even believe, although highly doubtful, that the spread of new diseases by the Europeans was an attempt at potential genocide towards the natives. This method is still often debated (Aboriginal Rights – EmbraceAustralia. com). Lest we forget, that along with all of these events during the years of Aboriginal oppression the natives were, and still are, associated with many false and insensitive racist prejudices. More recently, only in 2008, an official apology was finally released by Australia’s then Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd. PM Rudd gave a four minute apology followed by a 20 minute speech recounting many events and stories of victims. The apology was addressed to all aborigines and most importantly, the stolen generations. To the mothers and fathers, the brothers and sisters, for the breaking up of families and communities, we say sorry. And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted upon a proud people and proud culture, we say sorry. † Mr. Rudd finished his speech with this closing statement before receiving a standing ovation (New York Times, Johnson). Although this apology demonstrates how most of Australia is ready to continue evolving and move on from all the oppression, a study conducted in 2008 found that â€Å"Australians in general are welcoming of diversity, but some 1 in 10 Australians still hold racist views†. The results of that study illustrate how oppression and racism, although tremendously improved, will most likely always be present in Australia’s society (Racism in Australia, Shah. Though the journey has not been easy, the proud aboriginal natives of Australia now have a tale to tell about their fight against oppression lasting two centuries. As they reencounter their battles against small pox epidemics and for land and rights, they will not be remembering their pains and sufferings, but celebrating their strength and determination to have overcome this mogul in Australian history.